The following Glossary is a generic glossary of biblical and theological terms designed to assist the student unfamiliar with the technical vocabulary of biblical and theological interpretation.

Bibliography: The following definitions of key expressions in Revelation studies is adapted from several reference works, among them: John J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to the Jewish Matrix of Christianity, (New York: The Crossroad Publishing Company, 1984), John J. Collins, Ed., Apocalypse: The Morphology of a Genre (Semeia 14: The Society of Biblical Literature, 1979), Everett Ferguson, Editor, Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, (New York: Garland Publishing Co., 1990), Paul D. Hanson, The Dawn of Apocalyptic (Philadelphia: The Fortress Press, 1975), and Richard N. Soulen, Handbook of Biblical Criticism (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1981), The Anchor Bible Dictionary (New York: Doubleday, 1992), The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, (Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1979), M. R. James, The Apocryphal New Testament, (Oxford: Claredon Press, 1950), Edgar Hennecke and William Schneemelcher, New Testament Apocrypha, 2 Vols., (Philadelphia: the Westminster Press, 1963), James M. Robinson, The Nag Hammadi Library in English, (San Francisco: Harper, 1990), Edgar J. Goodspeed, The Apocrypha: An American Translation, (Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1938), Edgar J. Goodspeed, The Story of the Apocrypha, (Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1939), G. W. E Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature Between the Bible and the Mishna, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1981), M. Stone, Jewish Writings of the Second Temple Period, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984), and Robert G. Clouse, Ed., The Meaning of the Millennium: Four Views, (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1977.)GLOSSARY OF BIBLICAL AND THEOLOGICAL TERMS

AMILLENNIALISM
Amillennialism is one of the terms used to describe theological theories regarding the 1000 year reign or the "anticipated" millennial reign of Christ. Other terms falling under the category of millennial theology are Premillennialism, Dispensationalism, and Postmillennialism. Each of these is discussed in its own right in the glossary.

As will be noticed under the discussion of Millennialism, the term derives from the Latin terminology for 1000 years, namely, mille – 1000, and annus – year. Hence the term millennial refers to theories of the 1000 year reign of Christ of Rev 20:4.

Amillennial is the term used to refer to theories that do not see in Rev 20:4 and the 1000 years a literal period of time, or to that extent, any period of time. Amillennial theories suggest that the millennium refers rather to conditions or situations implying completeness, since the figure 1000 is understood to refer to completeness. In the case of Rev 20:4 the reign of the martyrs for 1000 years refers to the fact that they reign completely with Christ. They are conquerors (victorious) and thus share with Christ in his victory and reign. Rev 20:4 does not say that Christ reigns for 1000 years, nor that his reign is on earth. It is the martyrs who reign completely with Christ (for a 1000 years with the 1000 figuratively referring to the completeness of their reign).

Amillennial theories do not follow a literal interpretation of the figurative language of apocalyptic and Revelation, and furthermore are committed to setting the message of Revelation within the context of the 1^st century church suffering under Roman persecution. Amillennial scholars explain that the theological principles revealed in the message of Revelation to the 1^st century church apply today to Christians suffering persecution or affliction.

Although Amillennial views differ, the following chart diagrams the Amillennial view adopted in this commentary:

ANTICHRIST
The term "antichrist" nowhere appears in the text of Revelation itself, but is found often in commentaries, especially those coming from some Protestant, Fundamentalist, or Dispensationalist persuasions. The Greek term antichristos appears only five times in the New Testament, and only in the Johannine Epistles (1 Jn 2:18, 22; 4:3; and 2 Jn 7). In the Johannine Epistles the term is used only in regard to those who deny that Jesus is the Christ or that Jesus Christ came in the flesh. In this case the problem seems to be a Gnostic type heresy (see Glossary under Gnosticism) which in now way addresses the theological problem of Revelation. The use of the term "antichrist" in the context of Revelation is unfortunate, arising in most cases from a poor understanding of who the beast is in Revelation, and the nature of the problem Christians were encountering with the beast. This commentary will not make reference to the "antichrist" nor refer to the beast as the antichrist. Certainly, the beast is opposed to the Christian faith and in that sense is anti-Christian, but the term "antichrist," having been used in the biblical text in other contexts, is not suitable for this study.

APOCALYPTIC
Apocalyptic derives from the Greek word apokalypsis meaning "a revelation, an uncovering, a disclosure." Apocalyptic is a broad term, appearing first in Biblical criticism at the beginning of the 19th cent. The term is used to designate those ancient visionary writings or parts of writings which, like the NT apocalypse from which the name is derived, namely, the book of Revelation, claim to reveal mysteries relating to the end of the world (age) and the glories of a future transcendent world (age) that is to break into human experience.

Apocalyptic literature is not, however, limited to the canonical Scriptures, for a vast pool of apocalyptic, or heavily apocalyptically flavored texts are available to the biblical critic. This rich storehouse of information provided an appropriate and powerful vehicle for the authors of our biblical texts. This is particularly true of the author of Revelation who found in the apocalyptic mindset, genre, and literature a most suitable medium for his theological message.

The term is used in a variety of ways and may refer to a range of concepts and theological motifs typical of this genre of literature. It may refer to a sociological or theological mind set, a method of communicating, or a type (genre) of literature, all of which are heavily influenced by visions, symbols, cosmic eruptions and wars, and threatening beasts. Biblical apocalyptic is a distinctive Jewish and Christian phenomenon that flourished in the four centuries between 200 B.C. and 200 A.D. the roots of apocalyptic, however, reach back into the 6th and 5th cent. B.C. Two of the best examples of the Biblical genre are Daniel and the book of Revelation. Many other Biblical texts, both Old and New Testament draw in varying degrees on the apocalyptic genre: Isa 13:4-16; 24-27 (the "Isaiah Apocalypse"); Joel 2; Zech 9-11, 12-14; Ezek 38-39; Amos 5:16-20; 9:11-15; Mk 13; Mat 23-25; Lk 21; 1 Thess 4-5; 2 Thess 2:1-2; 1 Cor 15; Rom 1:18-32; 8:18-25.

Many of the Pseudepigraphal and Apocryphal writings (see the glossary on these terms) are designated Apocalypses, or are considered to be heavily influenced by apocalyptic. Though no complete agreement exists, those so designated usually include: Apocalypse of Abraham; Apocalypse of Baruch (II or Syriac Baruch); Apocalypse of Esdras (IV Ezra 3-14); I Enoch; Book of Elijah; I Baruch; Apocalypse of Moses (or the Life of Adam and Eve); Apocalypse of Sedrach; Apocalypse of Elijah; II Enoch; Assumption of Moses; Sibylline Oracles; Book of Jubilees; Testament of Abraham; Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs; Ascension of Isaiah, et. al. Of this list, the first four, plus the canonical apocalyptically influenced Daniel and Revelation, are the best literary examples of this type.

Several of the Dead Sea Scrolls are also considered to be significantly influenced by apocalyptic interests. In particular the War Scroll, the Description of the New Jerusalem, and the Thanksgiving Psalms manifest striking apocalyptic features. Several prominent apocalyptic works found among the Dead Sea Scrolls indicate the apocalyptic interests of the Dead Sea Covenanters. The are Daniel; I Enoch; and Jubilees.

Challenging questions arise when discussing Apocalyptic: How does one define Apocalyptic? What are its unique characteristics? How does it work, and what was its purpose? What unique sociological and religious contexts gave rise to this genre? And why was it so popular among Jewish and Christian writers during the 400 years of its zenith? Several challenging questions have challenged scholars addressing this unique and fascinating genre. Questions as to whether it constitutes an identifiable literary genre continue to be debated, although an Apocalyptic Group meeting as part of the Society of Biblical Studies study groups has made significant strides in identifying this genre. (See J. J. Collins’ two works referenced below in the Bibliography.) Those with somewhat negative attitudes toward an identifiable literary genre argue that apocalyptic simply uses, adapts, and transforms older traditional genres. Klaus Koch has, however, identified six general literary features which are normally present in apocalypses: 1) discourse cycles (frequently called "visions") between the apocalyptic seer and a heavenly being, revealing the secret of man’s destiny; 2) formalized phraseology depicting the spiritual turmoil of the seer (trance, etc.) that accompanies the vision; 3) a paraenetic discourse conveying an eschatological ethic or an introductory legend illustrating proper behavior; 4) pseudonymity, bearing the name of some ancient worthy - although the book of Revelation is an exception; 5) mythical images rich in symbolism (animals, angels, demons, cosmic phenomena); and, 6) a composite character (70 percent of the book of Revelation is influenced significantly by previously written sources).

In terms of general content, apocalyptic is characterized by the belief 1) that the radical transcendent transformation of this world lies in the immediate future (Dan 12:11,12; Rev 22:20; II Baruch 85:10; IV Ezra 4:50; 2) that a cosmic catastrophe (war, fire, earthquake, famine, pestilence) precedes the end; 3) that the epochs of history leading up to the end are predetermined; 4) that a hierarchy of angels and demons mediate the events in the two worlds (this world and the one to come) and that victory is assured to the divine realm; 5) that a righteous remnant will enjoy the fruits of salvation in a heavenly Jerusalem; 6) that the act inaugurating the kingdom of God and marking the end of the present age is His (or the Son of Man’s) ascension to the heavenly throne; 7) that the actual establishment of the New Kingdom is effected through a royal mediator, such as the Messiah or the Son of Man, or simply and angel; 8) that the bliss to be enjoyed by the righteous can only be described as glory (Rev 21:1; Dan 12:3; I Enoch 50:1; etc.).

The origin of apocalyptic is variously ascribed to Hebrew prophecy, Iranian religion, Hellenistic syncretism, and Old Canaanite myths, with the greater number of scholars acknowledging at least the influence of eastern religion, particularly Zoroastrianism. For a full appraisal of the question of the origins of apocalyptic and the methodology used to answer it, see Paul D. Hanson, John J. Collins in the Bibliography below. Points often debated in contemporary NT scholarship relate to what extent Jesus and the NT writers, especially Paul, were influenced by apocalyptic; to what extent was apocalyptic pessimistic about world history; and to what extent can the kingdom of God be continuous with this world or the present age or time.

John J. Collins and his working associates in the apocalyptic study group propose the following working definition of an apocalypse: "Specifically, an apocalypse is defined as: ‘a genre of revelatory literature with a narrative framework, in which a revelation is mediated by an otherworldly being to a human recipient, disclosing a transcending reality which is both temporal, insofar as it envisages eschatological salvation, and spatial insofar as it involves another, supernatural world.’"

For the purpose of this study we will consider apocalyptic to be a mindset that expressed itself in literary form which eventually became an identifiable literary genre. The context of apocalyptic usually is a people under severe sociological, political, or religious opposition and persecution. Fundamentally pessimistic about human potential and the role of history (man’s effort) to resolve the problem, apocalyptic looks to divine or transcendent intervention as the only hope for the future. Drawing on cosmic visions in a kaleidoscopic manner, and a intense symbolism, the author paints impressionistic pictures as he develops his theme. The primary theme or theology of apocalyptic, especially as it relates to the biblical texts and in particular, Revelation, is that the only hope for victory over the "enemy" is God’s transcendent intervention. The persecuted are encouraged through the apocalyptic genre and its theology to not lose or compromise their faith, to be faithful to God "even unto death," and God would transform any defeat into a magnificent victory. In the words of Paul (Rom 8:37ff) "we are more than conquerors through him who loved us." A major theme in Revelation is that Christians conquer Satan and the "enemy" through dying for their faith (martyr from the Greek martus mean to "witness to one’s faith"). Martyrs are raised by the power of God, thus vindicated by God, and reign with Christ in God’s kingdom.

APOCRYPHA
The term Apocrypha derives from the Greek apokruphos meaning "hidden’ or "concealed." In biblical studies it has reference to a collection of writings that are considered highly spiritual, close to the biblical mindset, yet not completely in keeping with the biblical integrity. As a result the apocryphal books of Judaism and Christianity were not included in the biblical canon (list of books received by the church or community of faith as authoritative and normative.)   There are both New and Old Testament apocryphal books. Although not considered "inspired" or "normative" these writings were highly esteemed at the time the New Testament books were being produced and in many cases formed the conceptual framework of the writer. We will notice this in particular in regard to Revelation, but an interesting demonstration of this can be found in Jude 8, 9, 14. The Apocrypha became a plentiful and significant resource of ideas and expressions for the writer of Revelation.

NT Apocrypha
The NT Apocrypha date from the second to the sixth centuries A.D. They are written in the form of gospels, acts, (histories), epistles, and apocalypses, and claim to report events, teachings, and prophecies related to Jesus and the early apostles which are not recorded in the canonical Scriptures. These writings contain little of historical value in terms of the subjects with which they deal (e.g., the birth of Mary, and the childhood of Jesus, etc.) But are of inestimable value in understanding the mind set of both orthodox and heterodox Christianity of the early centuries. Like the books of the NT, the apocryphal NT writings derive from the life and concerns of the early Christian communities.

The great flood of new material that in recent years has enriched the field of biblical studies, much of it due to the discovery in 1945 of a hoard of Coptic Gnostic texts at Nag in upper Egypt, has increased and enhanced the apocryphal materials available to scholars, and provided both a sociological and religious laboratory for research into early Christian beliefs and practices.

The following list of the most important apocryphal texts, organized into the four traditional categories represented in the canonical NT, demonstrates the proportions of this valuable resource of pseudo-biblical material:

Gospels: Arabic Gospel of the Infancy; Armenian Gospel of the Infancy; Assumption of the Virgin; Gospel of Bartholomew; the Book of the Resurrection of Christ by Bartholomew; Gospel of Basilides; Gospel of Cerinthus; Gospel of the Ebionites; Gospel According to the Hebrews; Protoevangelium of James; History of Joseph the Carpenter; Gospel of Marcion; Gospel of the Birth of Mary; Gospel of Philip; Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew; and finally possible one of the most valuable, Gospel of Thomas.

Acts: Apostolic History of Abdias; Acts of Andrew; fragmentary story of Andrew; Acts of Andrew and Matthias; Acts of Andrew and Paul; Acts of Barnabas; Ascent of James; Acts of James the Great; Acts of John; Acts of John by Prochorus; Martyrdom of Matthew; Acts of Paul; Passion of Paul; Acts of Peter; Acts of Peter and Andrew; Acts of Peter and Paul; Acts of Philip; Acts of Pilate; Acts of Thaddaeus; Acts of Thomas.

Epistles: Epistles of Christ and Abgarus; Epistle of the Apostles; Third Epistle of the Corinthians; Epistle of the Laodiceans; Epistle of Lentulus; Epistles of Paul and Seneca; Apocryphal Epistle of Titus.

Apocalypses: Apocalypse of James; Apocalypse of Paul; Apocalypse of Peter; Revelation of Stephen; Apocalypse of Thomas; Apocalypse of the Virgin.

Additional writings, known by little more than their name, could be included in this list of Apocryphal writings, as well as some literature classified under other categories of early Christian literature.

Old Testament Apocrypha
The OT Apocrypha is comprised of those books, or portions of books, included in the LXX (Septuagint, or Greek translation of the Hebrew Old Testament. Tradition has it that this translation was made in Alexandria, Egypt, in circa 270 B.C.), or included in the Old Latin translation of the LXX, but not included in the Hebrew canon of the Old Testament. These writings were accepted by some sectors of the early church as sacred writings, but were never included in the Hebrew canon. They represent deeply religious writings that date from circa 300 B.C. Some of them are as late as 70 A.D.

In preparing his edition of the Bible in Latin (known as the Vulgate), Jerome (circa 400 A.D.) chose to follow the Hebrew canon rather than the LXX which included the additional non-canonical books. Jerome included the additional books into a distinct corpus which he termed "apocryphal." These he also described as "ecclesiastical books" in contradistinction to the "canonical books" of the Hebrew OT. Since Jerome, the theological and physical place of the

Apocrypha in the Christian canon has continued to be a matter of dispute, with the Eastern and Russian Orthodox, the Roman Catholics, and the Protestants accepting differing solutions as indicated below.

Old Testament Apocryphal books include:
(A) Tobit; Judith; the Wisdom of Solomon; and Eccelesiasticus or the Wisdom of Jesus; the Son of Sirach - of the apocrypha these alone were accepted as canonical by the Eastern Church at the Synod of Jerusalem in 1672.

(B) Baruch; the Letter of Jeremiah (or Baruch, ch. 6. In the LXX these two writings appear as additions to the book of Jeremiah); the Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Young Men (or Holy Children); the History of Susanna, and Bel and the Dragon (in the LXX the last three appear as additions to the book of Daniel); and 1 and 2 Maccabees.

These writings, plus (A) above, were confirmed as canonical by the Council of Trent in 1548, though entitled "Deuterocanonical" since they did not appear in the Hebrew Bible.

(C) I Esdras (called Esdras A in the LXX, III Esdras in the Vulgate where Ezra and Nehemiah are called I & II Esdras) which contains portions of II Chron, Ezra, and Nehemiah plus other material; 2 Esdras (called IV Esdras in the Vulgate, also known as "The Ezra Apocalypse" (spec. Chs. 3-14), chs. 15-16 which are called V Esdras in some MSS [manuscripts] are a composite work and do not appear in the LXX); and, the Prayer of Manasseh, a brief penitential prayer - these writings were not confirmed as canonical by the Council of Trent and consequently appear in Catholic Bibles in an appendix or not at all (so the Jerusalem Bible). In modern Protestant editions of the Apocrypha (RSV, NEB) all of the above (A-C) are included.

(D) In the LXX and in the Appendix to the Greek canon one finds also Ps 151 and III & IV Maccabees.

BIBLICAL CRITICISM
Biblical Criticism is sometimes divided into two categories, Higher Criticism and Lower Criticism.  The terminology of Higher and Lower is unfortunate.  Lower Criticism is more correctly termed Textual Criticism and Higher Criticism more aptly refereed to a number of disciplines that enquire after the nature of the written text.   At times Higher Criticism has been broadly called Historical Criticism, but this too is unfortunate in that Historical Criticism refers to only one discipline in Biblical Criticism.
In this study we will include under the descriptive title Biblical Criticism a series of critical disciplines that refer to different elements relating to the text.
In the process of research and the use of Biblical critical methods, several of the critical disciplines discussed below may be combined and overlap as the researcher brings to bare the various critical tools at his or her disposal in an attempt to analyze the text.
We begin by discussing the term Criticism.  Criticism has reference to a range of critical questions a scholar might ask the text in order to better understand the text.  It refers to careful discussion of the various categories present, or potentially present in the text.  Biblical Criticism does not seek to "criticize" the text, but attempts to understand the text by asking certain critical questions of the text.
Textual Criticism raises questions regarding the reliability of the text itself.  What is the nature of the text, where did it come from, how reliable is the text.  In regard to the Bible, Textual Criticism explores the various manuscripts, translations, and versions that lie behind the Hebrew or Greek texts from which our language translations (English, German, Spanish, French, et al) have been translated.  Textual Criticism will also explore the reliability of the translation itself, for example, the King James Version, the American Standard Version, the Revised Standard Version, the New International Version, et al.  Textual Criticism is a highly developed and valuable discipline in Biblical studies, far more deserving than the term Lower Criticism may imply.  Every time one chooses a new Bible and selects an NIV Bible over the KJV or the RSV, one has entered the field of Textual Criticism, even if only in a rudimentary manner.
Literary Criticism seeks to understand the literary type or genre encountered in the text.  In the Biblical context, the Literary Critic determines whether the text is a Gospel, an Epistle, an Apocalypse, an Historical Writing, a Prophecy, Wisdom Literature (Psalms, Proverbs, etc), a Proverbial expression, a Parable, etc.  The Literary Critic also seeks to understand how each literary type functions, literally, figuratively, symbolically, typologically, analogously, etc.  One needs to know how a literary text functions in order to know what kind of questions to ask the text.  One asks a fairy tale different questions from those asked of an historical narrative, or a biographical or autobiographical work.  One cannot treat a poetic or proverbial text in the same manner as one would treat an historical or a narrative text.  there are a vast number of different literary types in our Biblical texts.
Historical Criticism (sometimes unfortunately equated with Biblical Criticism and used broadly) seeks to understand whether the text intends to be taken historically, or to be based on historical evidence or narrative.  A number of literary genre do not intend to be taken as historical accounts.  Poetry and Proverbial expressions, Apocalyptic and Parable do not intend to considered historical references.  Historical Criticism undertaken by an overly zealous rational mindset can be destructive to the text.  If, for instance, the account can not be verified by an inductive scientific method of inquiry, some question whether the account can be considered historical or reliable.  This form of critical enquiry dominated 19th century and early 20th century inquiry, but has in recent years given way to more reliable avenues of research.
Form Criticism (Formgeschichte), once a favored critical discipline, but now giving way to other critical disciplines, seeks to analyze the individual statements or traditions within the text in order to determine what the sociological conditions were of the early community that caused them to remember the event while forgetting other events.  Form Criticism tends to be atomistic, breaking the text down into small sections, often failing to see the text as a literary unity within other literary units.
Redaction Criticism (Redactionsgeschichte), contrary to Form Criticism, seeks to understand how the writer (redactor, theologian) has combined the individual units into a text that makes a powerful theological statement.  Redaction Criticism seeks to identify the redactors theological tendenz (tendency or purpose).  In regard to the Gospels, the researcher asks how the redactor has combined the various traditions about Jesus into a meaningful theological statement about who Jesus is and why one should follow him.
Rhetorical Criticism is a discipline within the broader study of rhetoric.  The rhetorician seeks to understand those communicative principles that shape the passing on of information in a formal manner.  the discipline is broad and incorporates the study of all ancient languages and formal means of communication.  Rhetorical Criticism informs the student regarding such matters as how letters were written in ancient times, how the various components of the epistle work, and how they relate to the letter as a whole.  Rhetorical Criticism seeks to identify certain communicative keys that enrich understanding of a text.  Such expressions as "finally, first of all, therefore, I beg you, etc" inform the reader of certain emphases or transitions in the thinking of the writer.
Through the discipline of  Source Criticism the scholar seeks to identify the resources that the redactor or author may have used in developing his or her theological statement in the text.  A vast number of resources were available to the writer of the text, some would have been legends, some written sources, some oral traditions, some historical events.  In certain instances, when the writer identifies the source (by reference to an Old Testament Prophet) the task is simple.  On other occasions it is more difficult and requires an extensive knowledge of vast literary and oral sources and traditions available to the writer.  Through Source Criticism and the identification of the writer's resources, the scholar can often determine how the writer has used the source, and what theological statement is being made by the text.   At this point one also enters the field of Biblical Hermeneutics in an attempt to understand how texts were used and understood in ancient times.
Tradition Criticism (Traditionsgeschichte) attempts to understand how certain traditions (narratives, sayings, legends, etc) were passed down prior to the writing of the text.  Some of these traditions may have been oral traditions, some written.

CHIASM
Chiasm is a technical term used in literary criticism and biblical interpretation to refer to a literary style or structure adopted by an author to add sequence, meaning, or force to the message. The background of the term chiasm is the Greek letter chi which when in written form is similar to the Arabic X. The front half of the X, becomes the shape of the literary structure as indicated below in solid lines.

In this literary structure, point A of the structure leads to point B, to C, and then to the climax or final point D.  The movement then goes back to C1, to B1, to A1.  A and A1 are parallel, B and B1 are parallel, and so forth.

The intention of a chiastic structure is to lead the reader through progressive steps to a climax or main point of the discussion.

It is the opinion of many scholars that the literary structure of Revelation is best described as a chiastic one in which the high point of the literary piece is Rev 12 and Christ the Lamb of God. This is more fully described in the Introduction to this study.

CHILIASM
Like Millennialism, the term Chiliasm describes kingdom views relating to the 1000 year reign suggested in Rev 20:4-7. Chiliasm derives from the Greek word chilias meaning 1000. Chiliasm is the term used to describe 1^st century views of the millennium. There are several similarities between Chiliasm and Premillennialism. An important difference between the two words Chiliasm and Millennialism is that the former is used almost exclusively for early 1^st through 6^th century theories relating to the 1000 year reign, whereas millennialism is used in reference to modern day theories. Because of the similarity of these two terms and their concepts, those like Eldon Ladd who espouse a form of Premillennialism known as Historic Premillennialism trace the roots of Premillennialism back to the 1^st century Chiliasm. In fact, chiliasm is a form of premillennial thinking. As will be discussed below there are, however, significant differences between Chiliasm and Historic Premillennialism.

It seems that Chiliastic views had their roots in Phrygia in western Asia Minor, now Turkey. The general sense of chiliasm is that following the death and resurrection of Jesus the church was established in what one could term the church age. Due to early persecutions and social opposition the many Christians hoped for a future period of peace in which they, together with Christ, would reign in a peaceful kingdom. Such hopes gendered heated discussion and led to considerable controversy in the early church with opinions divided over whether this future kingdom would be physically on earth, or a spiritual kingdom in heaven. Because of this debate, some groups were reluctant to include Revelation in their canon since it was the source of much of this speculative theology. Primarily Chiliastic views were that with the second coming of Christ a kingdom would be established when the saints would be caught up to be with the Lord in his kingdom.

As one surveys Chiliastic views during the first six centuries one finds a wide range of ideas. Fundamental to all of them, however, is the longing for a period of peace following times of stress. Some views stressed that this 1000 year reign would be centered in Jerusalem and would be followed by the general resurrection and judgment. Chiliastic thought can be found in such early prominent figures as Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis (western Asia Minor), Justin Martyr, Hippolytus of Rome, Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons, Methodius of Olympus, and others. Both Origen of Alexandria and Caesarea, and Augustine of Rome were staunch opponents of Chiliasm, preferring to see in the 1000 year reign a figurative symbol rather than a literal period of time.

As can be seen from the above chart, basic Chiliasm holds that the church age is also a period of spiritual kingdom experience. However, the peace on earth that the 1000 year kingdom promised remained unfulfilled in this life, so Chiliasts looked for a future period (1000 years) of peace in kingdom with Christ. The major difference between Chiliasm and Historic Premillennialism is the emphasis that Premillennialism gives to the Jewish nature of the fulfilled kingdom, interpreting it as a fulfillment or restoration of the Jewish kingdom, this time, however, with Christ reigning as king. Chiliasm does not make as much of the restored Jewish kingdom.

It should be noted as well that Chiliasm of the early centuries was far from a unified system, but was characterized by a wide range of emphases.

DEAD SEA SCROLLS
The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in Israel between 1947 and 1956 was perhaps one of the most significant biblically related discoveries of the 20th century.  The name Dead sea Scrolls refers basically to a large number of scrolls discovered in 11 caves on the Western shore of the Dead Sea nearby the ruins of a first century Jewish religious community at a place called Khirbet Qumran.  It is assumed by scholars from the nature of the scrolls that the community at Qumran was of an Essenic persuasion.  The scrolls were written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek and dated between 250BC and AD 68.  In a broader use of the term Dead sea scrolls we include scrolls discovered in adjacent locations such as Masada, Nahal Never, Wadi Murabbaat, and Nahel Seelim.  The scrolls are extrememly valuable in understanding sectarian Judaism at the time of Christ and the first century of Christianity, and early Jewish Christianity of the first century AD.  Scrolls of all of the books of the Old Testament (excepting Esther), and portions of the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, and a vast number of scrolls relating to Judaism and the life of the Qumran community are included in the list of materials discovered.  The OT scrolls date as early as the 3rd century BC.  Among the most significant discoveries were two Isaiah scrolls which are about 1000 years older than any existing text of Isaiah.  This Isaiah Scroll is about 2000 years old, and is the oldest copy of any complete Bible manuscript or scroll in existence.  A replica of this scroll is on permanent display in the Dead Sea Scroll Museum in Jerusalem.  The OT scrolls have confirmed the accuracy of the existing Masoretic OT.  Other significant scroll discoveries include The Manual of Discipline, The Manual of Benedictions, The Rule of the Congregation, The War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness, and many other valuable biblical study resources.  Valuable Apocalyptic and Eschatological materials are included in the scroll materials.  All the Dead Sea Scrolls were written before the destruction of the Second Temple; with the exception of small Greek fragments, they are all in Hebrew and Aramaic. The scrolls formed the library of an ancient Jewish sect, which probably came into existence at the end of the 2nd century BCE and was founded by a religious genius, called in the scrolls the Teacher of Righteousness.  Scholars have tried to identify the sect with all possible groups of ancient Judaism, including the Zealots and early Christians, but it is now most often identified with the Essenes; all that the sectarian scrolls contain fits previous information about the Essenes.

The accidental discovery of the scrolls by a young Bedouin shepherd boy in 1947, and the subsequent saga of further discoveries, secrecy, and scholarly protectionism form a fascinating story.  For almost 50 years, the full text of the scrolls was held in secrecy by a handful of scholars who jealously guarded the scrolls and their translation.  However, in recent years several good and reliable translation of the scrolls have become available to students of the biblical texts.  When the Bedouin shepherd boy found the scrolls he took them to a shoe maker in Bethlehem whose name was Kando.  Kando purchased the scrolls for $25.  Kando then sold the scrolls to the Bishop of his Syrian Orthodox Church in Jerusalem for an undisclosed price.  The Bishop then sold four of the scrolls to Samuel Gottesmann in the USA for $275,000.

Questions have arisen as to the origin of the scrolls, and regarding the reason for their having been deposited (hidden) in the caves of the Dead Sea region.  The majority consensus is that the scrolls were the library and product of the Qumran community which is usually dated from the time of the Second Temple Period (20BC).  Fearing the destruction of their library by the Romans advancing on Jerusalem in AD 66-68, the Qumran community hid the scrolls in the caves to protect them.  They lay hidden in the caves until their discovery in 1947.  From archaeological reconstruction of the Qumran community dwellings, a Scriptorium (facility for copying scrolls and manuscripts) has been established which seems to indicate that many of the scrolls were produced or copied at Qumran.

Some scholars have suggested that the scrolls were not the work of Essene monks but rather a collected library of important Jewish works that was hidden for protection during the Roman invasion of AD 67 to 73. Though the documents themselves date from the mid-3rd century BC to AD 68, the majority were composed during the 1st century BC and 1st century AD. The oldest manuscripts are biblical.

The above notes have been reproduced or written from materials contained in The Encyclopedia Britannica, The Anchor Bible Dictionary, and Soulen, Handbook of Biblical Criticism.  An excellent CD on the Dead sea Scrolls is available from Logos Research Systems.

For an interesting discussion on the Dead Sea Scrolls, their discovery and significance, we recommend a brief work by Dr. Bill Humble, Archaeology and the Bible, Gospel Advocate, Nashville, 1990. (Address: Christian Communications, P. O. Box 150, Nashville, Tennessee, 37202).

Several excellent books have been published on the Dead Sea Scrolls, among them Roland de Vaux, Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls (1973); Geza Vermes and Pamela Vermes, The Dead Sea Scrolls: Qumran in Perspective (1977); Geza Vermes, The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English, 1998;  Hershel Shanks (ed.), Understanding the Dead Sea Scrolls (1992); James H. Charlesworth, The Dead Sea Scrolls : Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek Texts With English Translations, 2000).

DISPENSATIONALISM
The term "Dispensationalism" derives initially from the Greek term oikonomia which occurs eight times in the New Testament. The term in the New Testament is translated in a variety of ways depending on the context of the term. Oikonomia is the root of our English word "economics" which conveys the sense of the plan, or how a something is carried on, or brought into being. The Greek term, being comprised of two words (oikos – house, and nomos – law or principle) literally means "principles by which a house operates." Of specific interest would be Eph 1:10, where the RSV translates the term as "a plan" in reference to how God would unite all things in Christ. The modern theological term, "Dispensationalism," is derived from King James usage where oikonomia is sometimes translated as "dispensation," sometimes as "stewardship." Working out of this "dispensational" King James terminology, and with the unfortunate casting of God’s saving work in terms of a time period rather than a system of operation, Dispensationalists have developed their unique doctrinal views.

In Dispensational use the term represents a period of time, differentiated from other periods of time, in which God works his plan in a specific manner. In different "dispensations" God works his plan in different ways. Each dispensation begins with an offer by God which mankind is to accept and obey, and ends with man rebelling or failing to obey God. Based on a literal interpretation of several Old Testament passages, notably Daniel 9:24-27, Dispensationalists hold that there will be seven dispensations, five before the incarnation, or first coming of Christ, one representing the church age or the age of grace, and then a final millennium or dispensation. Between the sixth and seventh dispensations there is to be a "rapture" in which believing saints will be caught up into the air to meet Christ (1 Thess 4:13-17). Toward the end of this sixth dispensation of grace, there will be an apostasy of the church which will introduce a period of tribulation (based on Dan 9:24-27). The final dispensation, or the millennial kingdom will be initiated by the second coming, to earth, of Christ who will then re-establish the Jewish kingdom over which he will reign eternally. This millennial kingdom will be on earth, centered on Jerusalem, and the finalization of God’s eternal plan or purpose. In this kingdom the law of God will be re-established along with the sacrificial system.

The following chart will represent a basic Dispensationalist scheme. We should remember, however, that Dispensationalists have through the years differed significantly in their understanding of this scheme. Each dispensation begins with an offering or promise to man by God, is followed by man’s disobedience, and finally by God’s judgement on man’s sinful ways.

Although Dispensationalists claim that this system dates back to the early doctrines of the church, especially into the 2^nd century, Dispensationalism as we know it today dates from the early 19^th century when a new type of Premillennialism was introduced by John Nelson Darby. Darby had been educated as a lawyer, graduating from Trinity College in Dublin. Darby’s academic preparation and education in the classical languages, humanities and arts was extensive and impressive. His theological education was, however, self learned. An ordained deacon in the Church of England, Darby became dissatisfied with what he interpreted as the apathy and lethargy of the Church of England. With several others who were disenchanted with the traditional church, Darby began a "house meeting" movement which soon became known as the Plymouth Brethren; their millennial theology being designated "Darbyism." Impressed by a literal interpretation of Daniel 9, Darby divided human history into seven periods of time, or dispensations. These periods of time, or dispensations, are listed below:

Dispensation 1: Gen 1:28 – The period of Innocence

Dispensation 2: Gen 3:7 – The period of Conscience and Moral Responsibility

Dispensation 3: Gen 8:15 – The period of Human Government

Dispensation 4: Gen 12:1 – The period of Promise

Dispensation 5: Ex 19:1 – The period of Law

Dispensation 6: Acts 2:1 – The period of the Church

Dispensation 7: Rev 20:4 – The period of the Kingdom

Fundamental to Darby’s Dispensationalism and those following him, was the view that the Church Age is unknown to the Old Testament prophetic system, it being "unforeseen" by Daniel and the other Old Testament prophets. This is described as the "great parenthesis" inserted between the 69^th and 70^th weeks of Daniel 9. In other words, the "kingdom clock" was stopped with the rejection of Jesus by the Jews and would only be started again at the second coming at which time the kingdom would begin.

Although Darby made several visits to the United States, beginning in 1840, where his views were adopted by Charles Henry Mackintosh and William Blackstone, "Darbyism" was "popularized" on the American theological scene primarily by Cyrus Ingerson Scofield (1843-1921), a lawyer from Kansas who became a Congregationalist minister in 1882. Early in his theological career, Scofield was influenced by Mackintosh and Blackstone, and after attending the Niagara Bible Conference where he was deeply impressed by a lecture on "Darbyism," Scofield’s influence spread widely with his edition of the bible accompanied by "Notes" interpreting the Bible along Darby’s Dispensational lines. So influenced was he by Darby that Scofield openly advanced the view that Darby was the most profound Bible scholar of his day. Dispensationalism in America owes much to the drive and foresight of Cyrus Ingerson Scofield who through his ministry in the Congregational Church in Dallas, his Scofield Notes in the Scofield Reference Bible, and his relationship with Lewis Sperry Chafer, minister for he Scofield Memorial church in Dallas and founder of the Dallas Theological Seminary, did much to shape American Dispensationalism along Darbyism lines. A common thread running between Darby, Scofield, and Chafer was that none of them had formal theological training.

Other significant personalities in the American Dispensational movement have been A. C. Gaebelein, Dwight L. Moody, Charles Spurgeon, Watchman Nee, John Walvoord, and Hal Lindsey.

Clarence B. Bass has defined the basic Dispensational position and view. "What, then, are the distinguishing features of Dispensationalism? They are: its view of the nature and purpose of a dispensation; a rigid applied literalism in the interpretation of Scripture; a dichotomy between Israel and the church; a restricted view of the church; a Jewish concept of the kingdom; a postponement of the kingdom; a distinction between law and grace that creates a multiple basis for God’s dealing with man; its view of the purpose of the great tribulation; its view of the nature of the millennial reign of Christ; its view of the eternal state, and its view of the apostate nature of Christendom." Clarence B. Bass, Backgrounds To Dispensationalism, (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1960), p. 19.

Problems one encounters with dispensational theology are the extreme literal interpretation of Scripture, failure to see beyond a Jewish fulfillment of Scripture, extreme speculative prophetic projections (especially of Daniel 9), the restoration of the Jewish system (which amounts to a direct challenge to the all sufficiency of Christ’s atoning work), and the fact that much of it’s theology is based on poor biblical interpretation (for example the Rapture, and the view based on Rev 20:4ff that the kingdom would be set up on earth).

The following is an attempt to diagram the dispensational scheme in similar fashion to other schematics developed in this study:

Dispensationalism is not limited to any one denominational group but cuts across such religious affiliation. There are some religious movements, however, that are significantly dispensational in orientation. These would obviously include the Plymouth Brethren, but another religious group committed to dispensationalism as a fundamental tenet of faith would be the Jehovah Witness sect. As indicated above, those graduating from the Dallas Theological Seminary would most likely be of this persuasion. It may not be an overstatement to observe that most followers of a literalist interpretation of Scripture, any biblical fundamentalism for example, would be of this persuasion. Many of the community bible fellowship churches would be dispensational in theological outlook, especially in their interpretation of Revelation.

EPIDEICTIC
Epideictic is a term adopted from the discipline of classical rhetoric.   Primarily it has reference to the style of communication or argumentation by which a speaker or writer explains his/her values for one of several reasons.  The chief   reason would be to assure the readers or hearers that the values are communal values shared by many, especially the hearers/readers and the speaker/writer.  In regard to Romans Wilhelm Wuellner observes that the purpose of the epideictic argument/style adopted by Paul was "to affirm the communal values which Paul and the Romans share in being agents of faith throughout the world." Wilhelm Wuellner, "Paul's Rhetoric of Argument in Romans....," Karl Donfried, The Romans Debate, Hendrickson, 1991, p. 134.

EPISTOLOGRAPHY
Epistolography refers to the study the writing of letters, especially letters from ancient times.  One of the first scholars to gather significant information on ancient documents, especially those in the Greek language, was Adolf Deissmann, Light From The Ancient East (1927).  Deissmann suggested that there were basically two types of literary correspondence, Epistles, which were more official and formal, and Letters, which were more personal.   Scholars today no longer follow Deissmann's two-fold division, but are indebted to him for demonstrating that there are a variety of different letter forms.  In recent years, W. G. Doty, Letters in Primitive Christianity, 1973,   and L. E. Keck, Paul and His Letters, 1979, have made considerable contributions to our knowledge of ancient letter writing.  For many reasons (pastoral, missionary, apologetic, didactic, paraenetic, and others) letters became a popular form of early Christian communication and edification.  By the time of the 1st century A.D., letter writing had become a finely developed and accepted literary form.  Of particular interest to our study is the suggestion that Pauline letters advanced a unique form of epistolography.  In the Pauline letter from we find the following components:

• Praescript (prescript), which includes the name some relevant information of the addressor, and a Salutation and greeting to the addressees.
• Laudatio, which originally included praise of the addressees and the invocation of the gods.  In the Pauline form it often includes addressee praise, but also a major prayer in which Paul usually indicates the major concern of the body of the letter, or at least the major concern he has for the addressees.
• Transitus.  In the Epistle to the Romans Paul includes at this point following the Laudatio, a Transitus, or transitional statement (Rom 1:15 - 17) that leads into the body of the letter and indicates a major concern in the writing of the letter.
• Body, which is comprised of two ingredients, a doctrinal element and a paraenetic (paranetic) element.  In the doctrinal element Paul outlines the doctrinal concerns, or states his "argument" of thesis.   The paraenetic elements are exhortatory or practical ethical guidance arising out of the doctrinal elements.  Sometimes the doctrinal and paraenetic elements are clearly defined or separated, at other times Paul intermixes paraenetic material within doctrinal elements.  Rhetorical keys such as "I exhort you..," or "I appeal to you..," or "I urge you, therefore..," lead into such paraenetic material.  We note an interesting point here, that Paul does not normally present doctrinal material for doctrines sake, but discusses doctrine as a foundation for ethical behavior.  In other words, paraenetic material (Christian ethical practice) is the outgrowth of a doctrinal foundation.
• Conclusio (conclusion), in which Paul sometimes mentions those who are with him or those whom he knows among the addressees, and in which he again often repeats in abbreviated form the major concerns he has for the addressees.

ESCHATOLOGY
The term eschatology derives from two Greek words, eschatos – "last," and logos – "speech, word, or discussion." As a theological technical term eschatology carries the basic meaning of a "discussion of the last things or the last age." It is used in a variety of different, yet related contexts such as the second coming of Christ, the final judgment, or the final days of human history. In another "timeless" sense, the term is used in regard to "significant" events which have "end time" significance. Thus the pouring out of the Holy Spirit, repentance, baptism, and matters relating to divine activity relating to the inauguration of the kingdom are referred to as eschatological events or matters having eschatological significance. The new age of Christ is therefore in  the Jewish Christian perspective of time, the last days, or the eschatological age.

In the context of genre such as apocalyptic or Revelation, significant events such as the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70 are often described in eschatological terminology. The intent is not to imply that such events inaugurate the final end time, but is intended to demonstrate that the event carries within it end time significance.

Furthermore, in Revelation, the author relies heavily on both apocalyptic and eschatological genre. In one sense, much apocalyptic is eschatological in that it draws heavily on the transcendent intervention of God, and in the case of Revelation such intervention bears end time significance. Hence in Revelation much of the apocalyptic genre has eschatological implications. The use of the eschatology of Revelation is not intended to imply that the eschatological terminology describing an event is intended as a prophecy regarding some end time event. The intention is that the event being described in eschatological language simply bears end time significance.

ESCHATOLOGICAL LANGUAGE
Eschatological language is language that is highly symbolic, often cosmic in nature, that draws on last time events of judgment and salvation.  It is used in situations, especially in Revelation and Matt 24, which on the surface look as though the text is discussion end of the world matters, but on closer examination of context reveal that what is being discussed is an event in history, possibly far removed from the end of the world or end time, but which bear end time significance.  Thus in Revelation John can refer to events to occur within the life of the 1st century church, describe it in eschatological language, and not intend it to be understood as a reference to the end of the world, but to the immediate context upon which a judgment is being pronounced which carries end of the world significance.  Thus eschatological language is symbolic language that carries within it end time implications or significance for events that may be far removed from the final end time.

NOTE: In the chart above, any event that falls between the coming of the Messiah and the parousia is considered to be an eschatological event, or a breaking in of the Messianic reign or power.  The eschaton began to break in with the coming of the Messiah, reached "cosmic proportions" at the death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus, broke in in an unusual manner on the Day of Pentecost, then again at the Destruction of Jerusalem, furthermore, the eschatological coming of the Son of man in power occurs whenever Jesus comes in judgment on his people or on the church (Rev 2, 3).  The eschaton will reach its climax at the parousia (second coming).

INAUGURATED ESCHATOLOGY
As we have observed above, eschatology is a mindset or way of looking at time.  It sees time as having a beginning and an end.  Booth the beginning and end are under God's sovereign control.  In the Jewish eschatological expectation they looked for a messiah figure who would bring God's judgment on the nations and usher in a new messianic age of blessing.  Later Christian interpretation of this was that Jesus, the Messiah, had come and ushered in the eschatological age and kingdom (Heb 1:1, 2; Acts 2:17).  In theological discussion C. H. Dodd (ca 1930s) had proposed language that indicated that this messianic age had been fulfilled or had begun.  Dodd proposed the term, Realized Eschatology.  Because this suggested more than what theologians had in mind and could be interpreted that eh end had already been realized, the term Realized Eschatology came under criticism and was by and large rejected.  
Oscar Cullmann (ca 1950s) proposed the term Inaugurated Eschatology in which it was implied that the end had broken in in the person of Jesus and had thus been inaugurated.  The end had begun, but the "end" of the end remained to be realized.  Thus inaugurated eschatology suggested that the end had broken in or had been inaugurated by the coming of the Messiah, that it was in process, and that it would be finally realized at the parousia or second coming.
Note this comment from a biographical statement on the death of Cullmann in 1999 at age 96, "His studies on New Testament eschatology and Christology drove him to propose a third position over against the popular positions of C. H. Dodd and Albert Schweitzer. That position was Heilsgeschichte (redemptive history). "With the life, death, and resurrection of Christ the eschaton has already begun as the presence of the congregation of glory is defined by the power of redemption. The absolute-cosmic consummation of redemption however stands still in the future. The resulting tension between 'already fulfilled' and 'not yet consummated' Cullman understood to be the critical and decisive factor, the unique "overlapping" dimension of an eschatological between-time which begins with Christ and ends with His parousia."

PROLEPTIC ESCHATOLOGICAL EXPECTATION
As an indication of how an inaugurated eschatology functions we speak of a proleptic eschatological expectation or experience.  We mean by this that something (either salvation or judgment) is being experienced before (proleptic) the final eschatological end.  By this we mean that an event or experience caries within it end of the world implications.  For example, we are experiencing a salvation now in the present that is to be finally fulfilled in the future at the end of the world.  This is a proleptic eschatological experience of salvation.  It is a present experience which contains within it future expectation or fulfillment.  We can speak of the Lord's Supper or Eucharist as a proleptic eschatological experience in that we are experiencing in the present all of the rewards to be fully experienced as we sit with God in the final eschatological banquet.  Likewise, we can describe a present judgment in eschatological language implying that the judgment is pronounced in the present but will be finally fulfilled or consummated in the end at the end of the world judgment.  The proleptic eschatological judgment is as real and final as the end of the world judgment, only it is being pronounced in the present.  (Pro - before, leptic from the Greek lempsomai - lhmyomai - to receive.)  In the context of inaugurated eschatology, when a judgment is described in end of the world eschatological language we are not necessarily speaking of the end of the world, but a judgment in the present that carries within it end of the world implications.  We see this especially in the Book of Revelation.

GNOSTICISM
Gnosticism is a term used to designate a wide range of thought that emerged during the late 1^st century AD, became a serious threat to both Judaism and Christianity in the 2^nd century. The term stems from the Greek word gnosis meaning "knowledge." It referred to a doctrine which argued that "salvation" or "deliverance" came through the possession of a special intuitive knowledge that was possessed by those distinctively "enlightened" from above by some "deliverer" or one who would break in from "above." Gnosticism never formed a specific religion, but remained an influence or way of thinking that permeated most religions or philosophies of its day. It is not possible to define Gnosticism with any specific precision since it ranged over such a wide spectrum of thought, but a few leading concepts can be traced in most Gnostic-like communities. There was the thought derived from Platonic schools that matter was evil since matter and mankind were created by a "mischievous" or wayward child (sometimes identified with Jehovah) of the ultimate God who is absolute light and goodness. This wayward god-child also created other spirit beings which ruled the "space" between the physical world and the ultimate god of light. In order for mankind to return to this god of light they would have to negotiate space and escape these spirit beings (demi-gods) on their way back to the god of light. However, another child of this god of light, the deliverer, managed to make this journey from the god of light to mankind and enlighten certain ones, thus enabling them to return through space to the god of light by escaping the "spiritual beings in the heavenly places."

The evident similarities of this school of thought to the Christian faith made the Christian faith an obvious target for this philosophy. The challenge lay especially in the fact that this school views the physical creation as inherently evil. This would rise on Christian circles as a serious challenge to the resurrection of Jesus and eventually the general resurrection, since why would one want to raise an evil body and place a pure redeemed spirit back in captivity in the evil body? Another, even more serious challenge to the Christian faith, and one which John addressed in the Johannine Epistles, was the denial that Jesus the Christ had come in the flesh, since flesh is evil.

Other serious problems encountered in this Gnostic mindset were its obviously heretical cosmogony (an evil creation being the result of the wayward god-child, Jehovah), its challenge to God’s saving activity in history (notably Jesus’ death on the cross and resurrection, both seen by Christians as God’s saving activity in history), and its emphasis that "deliverance" lay exclusively in possession of some special esoteric knowledge possessed by an elite community of believers. This heresy also tended to take sin lightly since sin was something intangible resulting from the flesh. Those "spiritual beings" enlightened by gnosis were not responsible for these sins of the flesh. This strange concept of special "grace" led to an antinomian (no law) and lascivious, licentious (one has a license to do something) attitude which was a direct contradiction to the ethical standards of both Judaism and Christianity.

Concerns over such forms of Gnostic thought (some of them Jewish forms) permeate much of the New Testament in some form, especially the Johannine Epistles. The problem in the Johannine Epistles, where John refers this mindset as the "antichrist," had to do with the denial that Jesus had come in the flesh which lay at the very heart of Christian faith. This "antichrist" flesh problem is not what we encounter in Revelation, and it would be pushing the Gnostic argument to the extreme to see Revelation as a response to this form of Gnostic thought. Since Revelation was written in the context of Ephesus and Asia Minor, which was certainly a hotbed for Gnostic thought, it is not surprising to find a possible reference to Gnostic tendencies in the references to the Nicolaitans of whom we know very little other than the fact that they appeared to be an antinomian and licentious challenge to the Christian faith. Obviously, Gnosticism and the "Antichrist" of the Johannine Epistles are not the problem addressed by John in Revelation.

HALAKAH - HAGGADAH
These are two technical terms relating to the interpretation of rabbinic traditions and the Torah (Law). 
Halakah (plural - Halakoth, meaning "rules") is used for the interpretation of rules for daily life or rules handed down by the rabbis (elders) that relate to daily life.
Haggadah (plural - Haggadoth meaning "narrative") is used for interpretations of the Rabbinic Law or Torah.
Both Halakah and Haggadah are found in tow forms in the Jewish Rabbinic collection of traditions and writings, namely, Midrash and Mishna.  (See Midrash and Mishna in the Glossary).

HEILSGESCHICHTE
Heilsgeschichte is a German theological term with a wide range of meanings and implications.  Fundamentally, or literally, it means salvation or sacred (heils) history (geschichte).  In certain theological contexts heilsgeschichte came to mean the history of salvation or the history of God's salvation.  In other theological contexts the focus was more on history as the arena of this salvation.   This second alternative posed problems for German theology which reacted radically to19th century anthropocentric theology (Schleiermacher et al) in that heilsgeschichte was perceived to be Hegelian which placed more emphasis on history as the arena of human activity, thus denigrating God's saving activity.  In the German theological heritage and tradition of Karl Barth (Swiss) and Rudolf Bultmann, namely, Neo-orthodoxy or Dialectical Theology, this led to a denial the role of history in the development of faith.  In the context of this tradition two German terms provided a convenient alternative to the dilemma of history.  Two German words were conveniently available for history, namely, Historie and Geschichte.  Historie was reserved for those facts of history that could be empirically verified.  History defined empirically thus ruled out such doctrines as the Resurrection of Jesus.   However, the significance of the Resurrection faith of the early church could not be summarily ruled out.  consequently, German theology resorted to the second word, Geschichte, which could be used of anything that had historical significance whether it could be verified by empirical means or not.  Hence, the Resurrection could be Geschichte, historically significant, while not Historie!

In more moderate contexts, heilsgeschichte has been understood to refer to the plan or economy of divine salvation, whether it is conceived to be historically verifiable or not.  We thus understand the term to be representative of the history of God's salvation activity.  To speak of a concept as heilsgeschichte, then, implies that the concept lies within the plan of God's saving activity which can be traced through the history of God's dealings with Israel leading to the coming and Messianic role of Jesus, the establishing of Jesus' church and inauguration of the kingdom, and the life of the church age that culminates with the parousia (second coming of Jesus).  Certainly, we would want to keep the emphasis on the significant aspects of God's saving activity in history.

INCLUSIO
A Latin term used in biblical studies to refer to a writer's style of beginning  and ending a thought, clause, sentence, paragraph, chapter, or book with the same words, terms, or ideas.  The purpose for adopting an inclusio is to limit the idea or thought in the statement to the defining thought of the inclusio.  Thus by beginning Jesus' genealogy in Mat 1:1-17 with Jesus, son of David, son of Abraham, and concluding the genealogy with these terms in reverse, Matthew was stressing that the purpose of this genealogy was to establish Jesus' right to the Messianic claims, son of David, son of Abraham.  This style of writing was popular and common in both the Old Testament and New Testament.

MIDRASH
Midrash has reference to either 1) a system or model of Jewish hermeneutic (method of interpreting the Old Testament), or 2) the collection of writings in which the Rabbinic Midrashim were collected. Midrash Halakha refer to interpretations of the Rabbinic traditions or rules of life, and Midrash Haggada refer to homiletic (preaching) interpretations or applications of the Law or Torah.  Often the midrashim found new meanings in the Scriptures that had not been seen before, or applied Scripture in ways not previously applied.  Sometimes the midrashim were highly imaginative and speculative.   By the New Testament times, midrashim was a commonly accepted method of applying the Old Testament Scriptures to Christian situations, and midrash was a fairly common hermeneutic to the writers of the New Testament.  The use of Midrash was significant to Matthew in the theology of his Gospel, and is common in the Pauline writings.

MISHNA
The Mishna is a collection of Rabbinic Halakha (the interpretations of Rabbinic traditions) developed within the Pharisaic and Rabbinic schools.  The Mishna provides the foundational structure of the Jewish Talmud.  The Mishna is in the form of a collection of Rabbinic Tractates divided into six Orders (identified as sedarim).  The Mishna is a great help in understanding Judaism during the Intertestamentary Period of Judaism.

MILLENNIALISM
Millennialism is a broad term that applies to modern interpretations of the 1000 year reign of Rev 20:4. The term derives from the Latin mille – "1000," and annus – "year." Millennial views and theories are many and different in many ways. Several sub-categories are included in Millennialism, namely, Amillennialism, Premillennialism, Postmillennialism, and Dispensationalism. Each of these is discussed in this Glossary. Basically, these theories attempt to interpret the statement in Rev 20:4 that the saints described in Rev 20:4 (martyrs) will reign with Christ for 1000 years. This millennial kingdom/reign is perceived by some to follow the Parousia or Second Coming of Jesus (Premillennialism and Dispensationalism), or to precede the Parousia or Second Coming (Postmillennialism). In either case, millennial theories have been extremely divisive in church history. One millennial view of the ancient church, Chiliasm (see the Glossary discussion of this term) was similar in some form to Premillennialism. This view in a variety of forms was most likely the dominant theory of the early church, and prevailed until Origen and then Augustine challenged the extreme literal interpretation of the biblical text upon which most millennial theories stand. In similar fashion today, Amillennial scholars challenge most millennial theories, charging that they are not the result of careful biblical exegesis and hermeneutic (interpretation), and manifest an extreme literalist interpretation of the biblical text. Other challenges to millennial theories are that they remove the message of Revelation from the 1^st century church and push the message into the distant future.

MONTANISM
Montanism was a late 2^nd and early 3^rd century heretical Christian movement originally known as the "Phrygian Heresy." In later years it was identified with, and named after its founder, Montanus (ca. AD 170). The group was characterized by ecstatic prophecy and revelations, engrossment in millennial speculation, extended periods of fasting and asceticism, and an interest in eschatologic conjecture. The movement gendered a bitter controversy with the mainline church which ultimately led to the excommunication of Montanus and the Montanist movement. Montanism’s influence was significant enough, however, to sway the great church scholar Tertullian of Carthage who converted to this persuasion shortly after AD 208. Montanism gained a considerable North African following as a result of Tertullian’s influence. Because of the movements emphasis on ecstasy, revelations, and prophecy, the book of Revelation became one of the movements favored texts with the result that many mainline churches became suspicious of Revelation and resisted the inclusion of this book into the church’s canon. In time, however, Revelation was looked upon in its own right and was accepted into the canon. After the 3^rd century references to Montanism in Christian literature began to ebb with only sparse mention indicating that by the 7^th century Montanism was no longer of any interest in church concerns.

Montanism’s interest to Revelation studies is limited to references to early millennial thought, and the role this movement played in Revelation being accepted into the church’s cannon. In the larger context of Christian study, the reluctance of the mainline church to accept the charismatic tendencies of Montanism indicate the declining interest and suspicion of the mainline church in charismatic expressions of Christian faith.

NAG HAMMADI
In similar fashion to the Dead Sea scrolls, the discovery of The Nag Hammadi Codices, a collection of 13 tractates (documents) has provided biblical scholars a valuable resource for understanding the development of early Christianity.  
The 13 Codices, a collection of Egyptian Coptic Gnostic writings, are dated ca the 4th cent AD (approx. 350 AD).

The following information is copied from materials provided by THE GNOSTIC SOCIETY LIBRARY, The Nag Hammadi Library section.

The thirteen tractates are in the Coptic language (Coptic is an Egyptian dialect written in the Greek alphabet).

The Nag Hammadi Library, a collection of thirteen ancient codices containing over fifty texts, was discovered in upper Egypt in 1945. This immensely important discovery includes a large number of primary Gnostic scriptures -- texts once thought to have been entirely destroyed during the early Christian struggle to define "orthodoxy" -- scriptures such as the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Philip, and the Gospel of Truth.

The discovery and translation of the Nag Hammadi library, completed in the 1970's, has provided impetus to a major re-evaluation of early Christian history and the nature of Gnosticism. 

For a discussion on Gnosticism click here on the word Gnosticism.

It was on a December day in the year of 1945, near the town of Nag Hammadi in Upper Egypt, that the course of Gnostic studies was radically renewed and forever changed. An Arab peasant, digging around a boulder in search of fertilizer for his fields, happened that day upon an old, rather large red earthenware jar. Hoping to have found buried treasure, and with due hesitation and apprehension about the jinn, the genie or spirit who might attend such an hoard, he smashed the jar open with his pick. Inside he discovered no treasure and no genie, but books: more than a dozen old papyrus books, bound in golden brown leather.  Little did he realize that he had found an extraordinary collection of ancient texts, manuscripts hidden a millennium and a half before (probably deposited in the jar around the year 390 by monks from the nearby monastery of St. Pachomius) to escape destruction under order of the emerging orthodox Church in its violent expunging of all heterodoxy and heresy.

How the Nag Hammadi manuscripts eventually passed into scholarly hands, is a fascinating even if too lengthy story to here relate. But today, now fifty years since being unearthed and more than two decades after final translation and publication in English as The Nag Hammadi Library, their importance has become astoundingly clear: These thirteen beautiful papyrus codices containing fifty-two sacred texts are the long lost "Gnostic Gospels", a last extant testament of what orthodox Christianity perceived to be its most dangerous and insidious challenge, the feared opponent that the Patristic heresiologists had reviled under many different names, but most commonly as Gnosticism. The discovery of these documents has radically revised our understanding of Gnosticism and the early Christian church.

The Nag Hammadi Library

The Nag Hammadi Library, a collection of thirteen ancient codices containing over fifty texts, was discovered in upper Egypt in 1945. This immensely important discovery includes a large number of primary Gnostic scriptures -- texts once thought to have been entirely destroyed during the early Christian struggle to define "orthodoxy" -- scriptures such as the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Philip, and the Gospel of Truth. The discovery and translation of the Nag Hammadi library has provided impetus to a major re-evaluation of early Christian history and the nature of Gnosticism. (Readers unfamiliar with this history may wish to review the brief introduction to Gnosticism and the Nag Hammadi library, and an excerpt from Elaine Pagels' excellent popular introduction to the Nag Hammadi texts, The Gnostic Gospels.)

The Nag Hammadi materials in the Gnostic Society Library were completely corrected and re-edited in 1997. Multiple authoritative translations of several texts are now included.

The following is a listing of the 13 Nag Hammadi Codices:
Codex 1: The Prayer of the Apostle Paul; The Apocryphon of James; The Gospel of Truth; The treatise of the Resurrection; The Tripartite tractate.
Codex 2: The Apocryphon of John; The Gospel of Thomas; The Gospel of Philip; The Hypostasis of the Archons; On the Origin of the World; The Exegesis of the Soul; the Book of Thomas the Contender.
Codex 3: The Apocryphon of John; The Gospel of the Egyptians; Eugnostos the Blessed; The Sophia of Jesus; The Dialogue of the Savior.
Codex 4:

PARANESIS, PARANETIC
Paranesis is a technical term used in regard to ethical, moral, or practical teaching that derives from doctrinal elements in a text.  The paranetic material grows out of, or is the logical application of the doctrine that has been presented or is under discussion.  It is not uncommon for Pauline epistles to be divided into two sections, the first a doctrinal section, the next which follows, the paranetic or practical application of the Pauline doctrine.  However, Paul often will build into his doctrinal sections short paranetic applications.

PAROUSIA
Parousia, like many of the terms in theological discussion derives from Greek roots. Two terms are combined producing a unique Christian technical term. Para – "along side" in conjunction with ousia – "substance" literally means "the coming alongside in substance." In Christian dialogue the term parousia refers to the literal "coming of Jesus in substance," or more simply, the second coming of Jesus. The term is used in reference to the real, "bodily" or "physical" coming of Jesus in place of a spiritual coming as in the presence of Jesus with his church today. The term is eschatological in the sense that it refers to Jesus’ coming in judgment at the end of the age.

POSTMILLENNIALISM
The roots of Postmillennialism can be identified in Christian theology as early as the century following Origen and Augustine’s allegorizing hermeneutic and the church’s abandonment of Chiliasm. The optimistic mindset following Constantine’s "conversion" and the establishment of a universal state church paved the way for a view of the church as the arrival of the kingdom of God on earth. In the modern era, however, Postmillennialism first came into prominence in England as a result of the influence of Daniel Whitby, a Unitarian minister (1638-1726). The religious fervor and revival in America following the preaching of Jonathon Edwards and others ushered in an optimistic view of the church’s potential to "convert" society and prepare it for the coming of Christ to take up his reign on earth. Postmillennialism, being an optimistic view of history and progress, thus looks toward a "golden age of spiritual growth and prosperity" as the preaching of the gospel of Christ ushers in an age religious or spiritual revival. Postmillennialists therefore interpret this period of great religious awakening and conversion as the millennial age which precedes the return and reign of Christ. The reign of Christ is thus "post-millennial." Loraine Boettner, a prominent 20^th century Postmillennialist observes regarding Postmillennialism that it is "that view of the last things which holds that the kingdom of God is now being extended in the world through the preaching of the gospel and the saving work of the Holy Spirit in the hearts of individuals, that the world eventually is to be Christianized and that the return of Christ is to occur at the close of a long period of righteousness and peace commonly called the millennium." He further observes that this period of religious awakening "is to be brought about through forces now active in the world…. The changed character of individuals will be reflected in an uplifted social, economic, political and cultural life of mankind. The world at large will enjoy a state of righteousness which up until now has been seen only in relatively small and isolated groups…it …means that evil in all its many forms eventually will be reduced to negligible proportions, that Christian principles will be the rule, not the exception, and that Christ will return to a truly Christianized world." Loraine Boettner "Postmillennialism," The Meaning of the Millennium: Four Views, Ed. Robert G. Clouse, (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1977), p.118ff.

Alexander Campbell, and many followers of the Restoration Movement among the Disciples of Christ and Churches of Christ prior to the American Civil War were postmillennial in theological outlook. Following the trauma of the Civil War and the subsequent division of the Restoration Movement into two distinct groups, the Disciples of Christ and the Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ vacillated between a Chiliast form of Premillennialism and a tentative form of Postmillennialism.

Problems encountered with the Postmillennialist view is that it cannot be sustained biblically, and that it manifests an overoptimistic anthropology and an overly progressive understanding of sociology.

PREMILLENNIALISM
Premillennialism is one of those terms that can be fairly widely interpreted depending on the perspective of the interpreter! Broadly speaking the term has reference to theories of the millennium (1000 year reign of Rev 20:4) that consider the Second Coming of Christ (the Parousia) to occur immediately prior (pre) to the arrival of the millennium (from the Latin mille – "1000," annus – "year"). The impact of this doctrine is that Christ will return to earth and establish his kingdom on earth, most often located in Jerusalem. Sometimes Premillennial theories are "moderate," meaning that they simply consider the coming of the kingdom to follow Christ’s Second Coming. Views range from those that do not identify the church in any fashion with the kingdom, to those that see the church as a "spiritual" kingdom still to be fully realized on earth at some time in the future. Sometimes the view refers to a literal fulfillment on earth, at other times to a kingdom in heaven.

Ancient Chiliasm was premillennial in thought, and would be at one end of a continuum of Premillennialism. Dispensationalism (for example, Darbyism, the Jehovah Witnesses, Scofield, Hal Lindsey, and the Dallas Theological Seminary theology) would lie at the other end of that continuum with a more fully developed dispensational theory of the millennium. (These views are discussed elsewhere in the Glossary). Toward the middle of the continuum would be the Historic Premillennialism espoused by Eldon Ladd.

A fully developed Premillennial view considers the church to be a "spiritual" kingdom with Christ reigning in the hearts of the saints from heaven, but with a fulfilled kingdom to be literally established on earth, centered in Jerusalem, with the Jewish system restored. Such views consider God’s promises to the Jews to have never been completely fulfilled and yet awaiting fulfillment.

A major difference between Historic Premillennialism and Dispensationalism is the absence of a Rapture and Postponement (prophetic clock stopped) Theory in Historic Premillennialism. Both, however, stress the Jewish nature of the millennial kingdom and the fact that this kingdom will be on earth and centered in Jerusalem.

Problems encountered in Historic Premillennialism are the Jewish nature of the future kingdom, the expectation of an earthly kingdom centered in Jerusalem, the literal interpretation of the 1000 years, the view that the kingdom must be the earthly fulfillment of the promise to the Jews of an earthly kingdom over all the world, which promise was not fulfilled in the past, and the denial of the fact that the church age is really the kingdom age; that there is something lacking in the church-kingdom.

PSEUDEPIGRAPHA
The Pseudepigrapha refers to a large group of writings falsely attributed to a person other than the one penning the work. The Greek term behind our English word simply means "false writing." In regard to New Testament Pseudepigrapha, the term refers to writings ascribed to an author other than the real writer. In the case of the Old Testament, however, the term has broader reference, namely, to literature not included in the canon, but considered sacred by early Jewish and Christian groups. Pseudepigraphy covers a wide range of literature covering what may almost be authentic to what is obviously falsely attributed to an author. Pseudepigraphy was not considered literary forger in the early years of the church since the intention of the writer was not necessarily to deceive. Early Christians considered it a matter of respect and honor to attribute their writings to one who had inspired their work. Some even argued that failure to do so was a matter of failure to honor one’s predecessors. By the year AD 120 pseudepigraphy was the norm among many Christian groups. Correctly speaking, pseudepigraphy was not the same as anonymity; pseudepigraphy was related in some fashion through a school of thought to some great person. Scholars judge only the references to the author to be "false," with the content of the writings themselves being considered invaluable for clarifying some early Jewish and Christian problems or difficulties. Some of the pseudepigraphical works were produced by learned and respected scholars. Important questions to ask pseudepigraphical writings relate not so much as to who wrote the work, but why the author wrote it and attributed it to another, and what the theme or theology of the book may be.

Examples of literature considered pseudepigraphical would be: 1 Enoch; Testament of Adam; Odes of Solomon, Apocalypse of Solomon; Apocalypse of Elijah; Ascension of Moses; 3 Corinthians; Epistle to the Laodiceans; Apocalypse of Paul; Passions of Peter and Paul; Acts of Paul; Apocalypse of Peter; Gospel of Peter; Birth of Mary; Passion of Mary; Apocalypse of the Virgin; and many others. It is obvious that some of the Pseudepigrapha are also listed among the Apocryphal books.

The reason that the Pseudepigrapha are important to Revelation studies is that much of the thought and message of Revelation is paralleled in the Pseudepigrapha, and many of the conditions of the living community were similar. Such information provides a thought and conceptual background, as well as a terminological environment, for understanding Revelation as a real living piece of literature addressed to a real living community of believers whose faith was under question and being severely challenged.

SANHEDRIN
The term Sanhedrin, derived from the Greek literally means "sitting down with".  It is difficult to determine with any degree of accuracy the Hebrew origins to the word.  The Hebrew origins could include certain leadership word groups including bet din which is used to refer to a judicial court.  The term could refer to local lower courts, or a higher "supreme" court.  The sources of information regarding the Sanhedrin are mixed and at times confusing since the Sanhedrin went through periods of restructuring.
From the Synoptic Gospels we learn that the Sanhedrin at the time of Christ formed the highest Jewish court of law and appeals that was comprised of Pharisees and Sadducees, with the High Priest presiding over the court.


SEPTUAGINT
The Septuagint is the Greek translation of the Hebrew OT.  It is the version most cited in the NT by the writers of the NT, especially Paul.  It was the "OT bible" of Judaism and Christianity of the 1st c. AD in that Jews at this time had lost the ability to read Hebrew, Aramaic being the language spoken by the Jews of Palestine or Judea, and that the NT had not yet been written and collected into our NT.  Jews of the Diaspora (the Gentile world) spoke Greek, not Hebrew, and seldom spoke Aramaic.  Tradition has it that the Septuagint (often referred to as the LXX, the Latin # for 70) was translated by 70 scholars in Alexandria around 270 BC.  The date and Alexandria are most likely correct, although the remainder of the tradition is suspect.  There are several versions of the Septuagint, e.g., Aquila, Theodition, Symmachus, just as there are several versions of the Bible today, the KJV, ASV,  RSV, NIV, NRSV, etc.).

TALMUD
The term Talmud derives from two Hebrew words meaning study and instruction.  The Talmud is comprised of two works, the Mishna and the Gemara.  The Mishna is a collection of rabbinic halakic (legal and procedural) material.  The Mishna is the basis of the later Talmud.  The Gemara (meaning teaching) is a collection of commentaries on a variety of subjects as well as exposition of the OT text.  Together the Mishna and Gemara form the body of the Talmud.  The form of the Talmud is that of the Mishna (6 orders [sedarim] divided into 63 smaller tractates.  The Talmud began to take definitive form around the 3rd century AD (CE), but its final form took place in the 5th century AD (CE).  There are two editions of the Talmud, the Babylonian Talmud (3rd cent AD) and the Palestinian Talmud (5th cent AD).  Much of the Palestinian Talmud has been lost, so the Babylonian Talmud is longer (4 times) and is considered the more authoritative.  In the Talmud one finds the collective wisdom and interpretation of Rabbinic Judaism.

TANAK
The term Tanak is a Hebrew abbreviation for the Old Testament.  It is derived from the initial letters of the names of the three divisions of the Hebrew OT, Torah (initially representing the Pentateuch), Nebiim (early and later Prophets), and Ketubim (The Writings, or remaining books of the OT).  The term Tanak, therefore, represents the Hebrew form of the OT.

THEODICY
From the Greek terms theos (God, divine) and dike (righteous, justice).
A theodicy is a defense of the righteous, all powerful, and all loving  God in the light of the problem of evil.  the question is asked by some, how can one believe in such a God that permits his creation to suffer?
The Bible makes no attempt to justify God, for he is the sovereign God and needs no defense.  
However, many texts in the Bible explain that God has made provision for man in this evil world, he has provided an escape from sin and evil.  This escape is provided through his loving grace and forgiveness.  Ultimately, this escape from the power of evil is provided through his eternal plan (heilsgeschichte) which reaches its goal in the death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus.
Ultimately, God will judge and destroy Satan, the root of evil in this world.  
The Book of Revelation affirms that that defeat of Satan has already taken place in the death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus, and that through their faith in Jesus the saints can share in the defeat of Satan.

THEOLOGY
Theology is a term derived from two Greek words, qeos (theos - god, divine) and logos (logos - word, talk, something said, discussion).  Combined the word means discussion about God.  As it is used in Biblical studies it draws attention to what a text, chapter, or book has to say about God, or, how the discussion about God impacts what the text says.  In regard to a book such as The Gospel of Matthew, theological discussion focuses on what Matthew says about discipleship or how a Christian should behave in view of certain theological emphases in the text or gospel.  It asks "What is the text saying about God and how does this impact man?  In regard to a book such as Revelation, theology asks "What is the message about God, Jesus, and martyrdom that we learn from Revelation?", and "How does this message impact the believer in similar or different situations?".  Theology  asks "What are the implications of what has been said for the believer?"  The difference between thinking or speaking biblically and speaking or thinking theologically is that biblical thinking might focus on more on the immediate text while theological thinking focuses on the larger or big picture.  One would hope that biblical thinking would lead to theological thinking, but this is not always the case!  Some biblical thinking tends to isolate separate texts from the whole and divorce them from the theological message of the whole.  All Christians enter into theological discussion whenever they discuss the implications of a text, but there is the danger that such thinking tends to remove the text from the theological thrust or context of the book (such as Revelation, Matthew, et al.).  When this happens this type of theological thinking is not biblical theology but group or personal "theology".  This type of theological thinking is better termed pseudo-theology.  We might term theological thinking based more on group needs than biblical context shared or group psychology rather than biblical theology.  Proper biblical interpretation and application must always move out of a biblical theology in which the interpretation or application is done within the theological context of the book (Revelation, or Matthew, et al.).

TORAH
The Hebrew concept of Torah is much broader than simply law, although it obviously includes what we might understand as law.  
Primarily, Torah means instruction or guidance.  Sometimes that instruction came in laws (the 10 Commandments), sometimes it came in Prophetic warnings, sometimes in Wisdom writings (Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Job, et al), sometimes in poetry (Psalms).
Initially, Torah was the equivalent to the Pentateuch, or first five books of the Old Testament.  (The Sadducees held only to the Pentateuch as Law).
However, in time, the Torah was understood as including all of the instruction of the Old Testament.  Jesus, Paul, and the New Testament writers understood Torah or Law in this broader sense of instruction.  Jesus and Paul (Rom 3:9-20) both included Psalms under the category of Law, setting Law in the context of something broader than the Five Books of Law (Pentateuch), and understanding Torah (law) as instruction and guidance.